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1 Manipulation
and 2 Therapy. Both are non-participative. The aim is to cure or
educate the participants. The proposed plan is best and the job of
participation is to achieve public support by public relations.
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3 Informing.
A most important first step to legitimate participation. But too frequently
the emphasis is on a one way flow of information. No channel for feedback.
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4 Consultation.
Again a legitimate step attitude surveys, neighborhood meetings and public
enquiries. But Arnstein still feels this is just a window dressing ritual.
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5 Placation.
For example, co-option of hand-picked 'worthies' onto committees. It allows
citizens to advise or plan ad infinitum but retains for power holders the
right to judge the legitimacy or feasibility of the advice.
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6 Partnership.
Power is in fact redistributed through negotiation between citizens and power
holders. Planning and decision-making responsibilities are shared e.g.
through joint committees.
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7 Delegated
power. Citizens holding a clear majority of seats on committees with
delegated powers to make decisions. Public now has the power to assure
accountability of the program to them.
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8 Citizen
Control. Have-nots handle the entire job of planning, policy making and
managing a programme e.g. neighborhood corporation with no intermediaries
between it and the source of funds.
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